Agricultural Extension Practices For A Farming Community

The previous chapter reviewed the agricultural extension practices where extension plays an important role in facilitating changes in a farming community. The literature indicated that there are a lot of extension approaches due to change of ideas, purposes vary, and paradigm shift. It appears that, agricultural extension involves many different approaches and methodologies. And it is managed and delivered through a variety of institutional arrangements. It seems that no single approach best suit extension development in all circumstances. The purpose of this chapter is to consider farming from the perspective of the farmer and how such consideration might benefit extension approaches and outcomes. The farming environment is complex and†¦show more content†¦Nevertheless, after the introduction, the chapter begins by clarifying what kind of farmers this study refers to by defining smallholder farmer, elements of smallholder, and the farming environment as to understand and identify some key variables in farming environment that will enhance our investigation of farmers’ livelihood. 4.1 Introduction This chapter identifies various factors that affect farmers’ decision-making concerning their way of life. The sustainable livelihoods approach (SLA) is a way to improve understanding of the way of life of rural people (IFAD, 2011). It draws on the main factors (internal and external) that affect rural people s livelihoods and the natural relationships between these factors. SLA is based on the concept of capability, equity and sustainability (Chambers Conway, 1992).This study seeks to consider SLA as a framework to help understand the main factors that affect cocoa farmers’ livelihoods, the relationships between these factors and how decisions are made on growing cocoa. In this chapter the diffusion of innovation model, particularly the variables which influences an innovation s rate of adoption (after Rogers, 2003), and elements of smallholder farmer by HLPE (2013) (see Figure 11) will be viewed through SLA. The commonly known variables determining the rate of technology adoption in agriculture were listed by Rogers (2003). These variables include perceived attributes of

Analysis Of Frankenstein And Nabokov s The Real Life Of...

Both Shelley’s Frankenstein and Nabokov’s The Real Life of Sebastian Knight investigate problems of reality, strongly suggesting that real knowledge of someone cannot exist or is at best inaccessible. However, while Nabokov and Frankenstein suggest that one may never be able to know the â€Å"real life† of another person, perhaps one’s failed attempts to perfectly capture that reality—reflections or interpretations of reality, that is—function as the most meaningful â€Å"reality† for the would-be knower. V.’s definition of â€Å"real† itself makes real knowledge an impossibility. While V. never explicitly defines â€Å"real,† readers can piece together an approximate understanding from the metaphors he uses to express his lack of access to the real Sebastian. Although V. â€Å"could describe the way he [Sebastian Knight] walked, or laughed, or sneezed,† these facts â€Å"would be no more than sundry bits o f cinema-film cut away by scissors and having nothing in common with the essential drama† (Larsen 16). Characters know much about Sebastian but â€Å"he himself escapes [them]† (Larsen 28-9). It’s this â€Å"essential drama† or â€Å"he himself† that V. identifies as real—the core essence of someone or something. And after a conversation with Sebastian, V. longed â€Å"for no earthly reason (...) to say something real, something with wings and a heart,† suggesting that something real is otherworldly, incorporeal (â€Å"no earthly reason†, â€Å"wings and a heart†), and thus beyond V.’s ability to know. Perhaps what Nabokov terms

Overcoming Ethnocentrism free essay sample

Please direct all correspondence to the first author at Department of Communication, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA; email:[emailprotected] edu; Phone: (209) 946-3044. 28 Overcoming Ethnocentrism Abstract This study, based on a survey of 419 young adults, found that high levels of individuals’ intercultural communication sensitivity and multiculturalism are significant predictors of reducing individuals’ ethnocentrism. As a leading country in diversity, equality and democracy, the United States is expected to continue its leading position in appreciating cultural diversity and respecting ethnic/cultural identities. The results suggest that promoting intercultural communication sensitivity and multiculturalism is a possible measure to overcome ethnocentrism and reduce conflicts among intergroup interactions. Limitations and suggestions for future research are provided. Qingwen Dong, Kenneth D. Day and Christine M. Collaco 29 Introduction The United States is a country of immigrants and it is critical for the country to promote cultural diversity and appreciate different cultural heritages (Dong, 1995). Ethnocentrism is viewed as lacking acceptance of cultural diversity and intolerance for outgroups (Berry Kalin, 1995). This lack of acceptance of cultural diversity has a strong tendency to lead to negative stereotypes toward other cultural/ethnic groups, negative prejudice and negative behaviors against these group members. As the world becomes a global village and more and more people with diverse cultural backgrounds interact with each other constantly, it is imperative to investigate what factors could help overcome ethnocentrism. This study, by examining two of these factors, hopes to identify a better route to look for ways and means to overcome people’s ethnocentrism. Reducing ethnocentrism would greatly facilitate accommodating diversity in the United States, making it a model country for diversity, equality and democracy. In this study, the authors focus on three constructs: ethnocentrism, intercultural communication sensitivity, and multiculturalism. Research has shown that ethnocentrism tends to be negatively correlated with intercultural communication sensitivity and cultural diversity. In order to explore ways to overcome ethnocentrism, the study has three major objectives. First, it examines the impact of intercultural communication sensitivity on overcoming ethnocentrism. Second it investigates the impact of multiculturalism on overcoming ethnocentrism. Third, it proposes some measures for researchers, policy makers, and educators to use in overcoming ethnocentrism. Literature Review Ethnocentrism The theoretical concept of ethnocentrism, as developed by Sumner (1906), suggested that in most intergroup contexts, one’s own group is the center of everything, and all other things are related to or dependent on it. Berry and Kalin (1995) pointed out that the ethnocentrism concept tends to be viewed as â€Å"the synonym for general antipathy towards all outgroups† (p. 303). The two Canadian scholars conducted numerous studies on this topic and observed that ethnocentrism shows that â€Å"a lack of acceptance of cultural diversity, a general intolerance for outgroups and a relative preference for one’s ingroup over most outgroups† (p. 303). Neuliep and McCroskey (1997) developed a generalized ethnocentrism scale (GENE) to assess how individuals feel regarding their own culture. The scale was modified and adapted for examining people’s ethnocentric views by a number of communication researchers. The GENE is a valid measurement of ethnocentrism that may be experienced by anyone, regardless of culture. Ethnocentrism has been described as an individual psychological disposition which has both positive and negative outcome (Neuliep McCroskey, 1997). On the one hand, ethnocentrism serves as an antecedent towards â€Å"patriotism and willingness to sacrifice for one’s central group† (Neuliep McCroskey, 1997, p. 89) and helps in constructing and maintaining one’s cultural identity (Chen Starosta, 2004). On the other hand, ethnocentrism leads to misunderstandings (Neuliep McCroskey, 1997) and reduced levels of 30 Overcoming Ethnocentrism intercultural-willingness-to-communicate (Lin Rancer, 2003). Studies have also shown that ethnocentrism may be mediated by culture. Lin, Rancer, and Trimbitas (2005) found that Romanian students were more ethnocentric than American students. The authors proposed that these results may result from Romania’s history of conflict with the Hungarians and being a polarized country. Neuliep, Chaudoir, and McCroskey (2001) found that Japanese students scored higher on the GENE than their American counterparts. They noted that Japan’s ‘parochial’ psychology, that serves as the foundation for modern Japanese thinking and their homogenous culture, may account for these results. In Japan, the term â€Å"gaijin† is used to describe â€Å"people from the outside† (p. 140). In both studies, men scored higher than women (Lin et al. , 2005), suggesting that socialization accounts for this difference (Neuliep et al. , 2001). Ethnocentrism is also highly related to individuals’ identity formation. Kim, Kim, and Choe (2006) reviewed identity’s link to ethnocentrism as it relates to multicultural issues. Kim et al. found that Koreans were more ethnocentric in comparison to Japanese and native English speakers. Koreans also scored highest in identity measurement. According to Chen and Starosta (2000) intercultural communication sensitivity is a prerequisite for intercultural communication competence. As one’s intercultural communication sensitivity increases, one’s competence in intercultural communication increases. Hence, ethnocentrism can be viewed as â€Å"an obstacle to intercultural communication competence† (Neuliep McCroskey, 1997, p. 389). Intercultural communication sensitivity It is crucial for individuals to develop intercultural communication competence today due to the fact that almost all of us are dealing with intercultural situations every day and everywhere. According to Chen and Starosta (2000), intercultural communication competence has two prerequisites: intercultural communication awareness and intercultural communication sensitivity. Although intercultural communication sensitivity may be related to many cognitive, affective and behavioral aspects of our interactions with others, it focuses primarily on individuals’ affective abilities, such as managing and regulating emotions. Cultural awareness provides the foundation for intercultural communication sensitivity, which in turn, leads to intercultural communication competence (Chen Starosta, 2000). Research suggested that individuals with higher intercultural communication sensitivity tend to do well in intercultural communication settings (Peng, 2006).